The hostility in the Pacific theater began earlier and was primarily between Japan and China. China also was going through an internal battle for control between Mao Zedong and his Communist Chinese Party (CCP) and the Nationalist or Kuomintang (KMT). This internal struggle would continue to disrupt the country even while under attack simultaneously by Japanese forces.
Communism spread to China and took a strong hold under the leadership of Mao Zedong. Zedong left home and had become a member of the Nationalist Army as the Revolution began around 1911. He was soon introduced to and became powerfully influenced by the philosophies of Marxism.
The Communist Chinese Party (CCP) was founded in 1921 by Mao Zedong, who adapted the principles of Karl Marx and the experience in Russia to conditions particular to China In 1927, he began his famous travels through rural areas where he witnessed the abysmal plight of the large peasant population, and began to formulate a uniquely Chinese brand of Communism that became characterized by an emphasis on the power of the peasants and the need for continuous revolution to achieve a just society.
The Kuomintang (KMT) or Nationalist would be lead after the death of Sun Yat-sen by Chiang Kia-shek a well educated politician-solider. This would cause a power struggle internally between these two figures based on ideology. This rivalry for control of China would take precedence even over the invasion of the Japanese in the 1930’s.
By the 1930s, the Mao Zedong and the CCP was engaged in civil war Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalists (KMT) for control of the ever-weakening country. After a defeat by KMT forces in 1934, Mao and his army embarked on what became known as The Long March, regrouping to the interior mountains and consolidating their strength.
Communism spread to China and took a strong hold under the leadership of Mao Zedong. Zedong left home and had become a member of the Nationalist Army as the Revolution began around 1911. He was soon introduced to and became powerfully influenced by the philosophies of Marxism.
The Communist Chinese Party (CCP) was founded in 1921 by Mao Zedong, who adapted the principles of Karl Marx and the experience in Russia to conditions particular to China In 1927, he began his famous travels through rural areas where he witnessed the abysmal plight of the large peasant population, and began to formulate a uniquely Chinese brand of Communism that became characterized by an emphasis on the power of the peasants and the need for continuous revolution to achieve a just society.
The Kuomintang (KMT) or Nationalist would be lead after the death of Sun Yat-sen by Chiang Kia-shek a well educated politician-solider. This would cause a power struggle internally between these two figures based on ideology. This rivalry for control of China would take precedence even over the invasion of the Japanese in the 1930’s.
By the 1930s, the Mao Zedong and the CCP was engaged in civil war Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalists (KMT) for control of the ever-weakening country. After a defeat by KMT forces in 1934, Mao and his army embarked on what became known as The Long March, regrouping to the interior mountains and consolidating their strength.
1926 Northern Expedition
In 1923 Sun Yat-sen made an agreement with the Soviet Union that helped him reorganize the Nationalist Party, or Kuomintang (KMT), and provided military aid to build an army. His price was to admit members of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to the KMT, where many were given key posts. Sun formed a government in Canton and died in 1925, after which the KMT split, with the pro-Communist wing in command, led by Wang Jingwei (Wang Ching-wei) and controlled by Soviet adviser Michael Borodin. Anti-Communist right-wing KMT leaders were expelled.
By July 1926 the 80,000-strong KMT army commanded by Chiang Kai-shek and led by officers trained by him in the Whampoa Military Academy was ready to take on the warlords and unify China. It confronted over 800,000 men from three warlord armies. Chiang won overwhelming victories, clearing warlord armies from lands south of the Yangzi (Yangtze) River.
Chiang resumed the Northern Expedition early in 1928. His major obstacle was Japanese intervention to prevent the unification of China. The Japanese captured provincial capital Jinan, killing 16 Chinese diplomats sent to negotiate and several thousand civilians in the Jinan incident. Chiang avoided war with Japan, diverting his troops’ advance by a longer route. In June the Northern Expeditionary army entered Beijing (Peking) peacefully. Nanjing became China’s national capital. By the end of 1928, the nation was reunified, though nominally for many regions; the KMT became the ruling government, and China entered a new era.
In 1923 Sun Yat-sen made an agreement with the Soviet Union that helped him reorganize the Nationalist Party, or Kuomintang (KMT), and provided military aid to build an army. His price was to admit members of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to the KMT, where many were given key posts. Sun formed a government in Canton and died in 1925, after which the KMT split, with the pro-Communist wing in command, led by Wang Jingwei (Wang Ching-wei) and controlled by Soviet adviser Michael Borodin. Anti-Communist right-wing KMT leaders were expelled.
By July 1926 the 80,000-strong KMT army commanded by Chiang Kai-shek and led by officers trained by him in the Whampoa Military Academy was ready to take on the warlords and unify China. It confronted over 800,000 men from three warlord armies. Chiang won overwhelming victories, clearing warlord armies from lands south of the Yangzi (Yangtze) River.
Chiang resumed the Northern Expedition early in 1928. His major obstacle was Japanese intervention to prevent the unification of China. The Japanese captured provincial capital Jinan, killing 16 Chinese diplomats sent to negotiate and several thousand civilians in the Jinan incident. Chiang avoided war with Japan, diverting his troops’ advance by a longer route. In June the Northern Expeditionary army entered Beijing (Peking) peacefully. Nanjing became China’s national capital. By the end of 1928, the nation was reunified, though nominally for many regions; the KMT became the ruling government, and China entered a new era.
1927 Chinese Civil War
Chiang Kei-shek already distrusted the Communists and recognized them as a dangerous rival of the new Chinese nation. He decided to strike fast for fear that the growing Chinese Communist Party presence in the Kuomintang would lead to a dangerous conflict down the road, or that the CCP might actually strike first and remove him from power. As a result, Chiang dissolved the Kuomintang’s alliance with the Chinese Communist Party and launched a violent purge of any communist members in the Kuomintang. Thousands were killed and forced to flee in this springtime purge. This purge signaled the start of a Chinese civil war that was to last for more than 20 years.
1931 Sep Mukden incident with Japan
September 18, 1931, the Japanese military used as a pretext for invading Manchuria, blowing up a section of their own railroad line. Japanese leadership chose a railway with absolutely no military significance to anyone, but it sat less than half a mile from a Chinese garrison. The idea was to attract the Chinese to the explosion, then blame them for it and invade Manchuria as a response.
The Mukden Incident (as it came to be known) didn’t damage any rail line, but it got the desired result. The next morning, the Japanese began firing at the Chinese garrison with a couple of large artillery pieces they had secretly built, and before the day was out, the garrison had been subdued with only a couple of Japanese fatalities.
The Japanese occupation of Manchuria had begun.
1932 Japan Invades Manchuria
The Japanese Government professed a desire to continue friendly relations with China and denied that it had territorial designs in Manchuria. However, Japanese military operations continued. By the end of 1931 Japan had destroyed the last remaining administrative authority of the Government of the Chinese Republic in South Manchuria, as it had existed prior to September 18 of that year.
After consolidating their position in Manchuria the Japanese military forces proceeded, early in January 1933, to extend the boundaries of the new puppet state by the
pushing further into North China.
Condemnation of Japanese Aggression
The League of Nations had directed an investigation be conducted (known as the Lytton Commission). The mission of the Lytton Commission was to determine and investigate Japanese intentions in China. The commission reported that the military operations of the Japanese in Manchuria could not be regarded as measures of legitimate self-defense; that the regime which the Japanese had set up there disregarded the wishes of the people of Manchuria and was not compatible with the fundamental principles of existing international obligations. The League Assembly adopted this report on February 24, 1933, and the Japanese delegation thereupon walked out of the Assembly. The failure of the League of Nations to deal with Japan's aggression in China would be one of the reasons the League would eventually fail as an organization.
On March 27, 1933 Japan gave notice of its intention to withdraw from the League.
In a statement made on behalf of Secretary of State Hull to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, May 17, 1933, it was emphasized that the United States Government concurred "in general in the findings of the Lytton Commission which placed the major responsibility upon Japan for the international conflict now proceeding in China".
The Japanese Government professed a desire to continue friendly relations with China and denied that it had territorial designs in Manchuria. However, Japanese military operations continued. By the end of 1931 Japan had destroyed the last remaining administrative authority of the Government of the Chinese Republic in South Manchuria, as it had existed prior to September 18 of that year.
After consolidating their position in Manchuria the Japanese military forces proceeded, early in January 1933, to extend the boundaries of the new puppet state by the
pushing further into North China.
Condemnation of Japanese Aggression
The League of Nations had directed an investigation be conducted (known as the Lytton Commission). The mission of the Lytton Commission was to determine and investigate Japanese intentions in China. The commission reported that the military operations of the Japanese in Manchuria could not be regarded as measures of legitimate self-defense; that the regime which the Japanese had set up there disregarded the wishes of the people of Manchuria and was not compatible with the fundamental principles of existing international obligations. The League Assembly adopted this report on February 24, 1933, and the Japanese delegation thereupon walked out of the Assembly. The failure of the League of Nations to deal with Japan's aggression in China would be one of the reasons the League would eventually fail as an organization.
On March 27, 1933 Japan gave notice of its intention to withdraw from the League.
In a statement made on behalf of Secretary of State Hull to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, May 17, 1933, it was emphasized that the United States Government concurred "in general in the findings of the Lytton Commission which placed the major responsibility upon Japan for the international conflict now proceeding in China".
1934 – 1935 The Long March of Mao Zedong
The Long March saved Mao Zedong and the Communist Party from the attacks by Chiang Kei-shek. The Long March came about when the Chinese Communists had to flee a concerted Kuomintang attack that had been ordered by Chiang Kia-shek.
In the autumn of 1933, the Kuomintang leader Chiang Kia-shek launched a huge attack against the Communists who were then based in south-east China. 500,000 Kuomintang troops surrounded Jiangxi in an attempt to isolate the Communists. The Kuomintang had a policy of making a slow advance building trenches and blockhouses as they went to give the Kuomintang troops there places of protection. The idea was to starve them out rather then engage in combat with them.
It was then that the Communists changed tactics. Against the advice of Mao, the Communists used full-scale attacks against the Kuomintang. The Communist Chinese Party was being advised by a Russian military leader who promoted the idea of a full front attack which Mao Zedong opposed. He convinced the Communist hierarchy that Mao was wrong. He also branded Mao as being politically wrong. Mao was expelled from the Chinese Communist Party’s Central Committee.
The strategy proved to be very costly for the Communists. They lost men and equipment and due to the siege was unable to get supplies through.
Mao tried to win back support by pushing for a breakout by the Red Army followed up by an attack on the Kuomintang in their rear. This was rejected in favor of the Russian advisors idea for a full-scale retreat to where the Chinese Communist’s Party Second Army was based. The retreat – which was to be called the Long March – started in October 1934.
The Red Army started to Long March carrying whatever it could. 87,000 soldiers started the retreat carrying such items as typewriters, furniture, printing presses etc. They also took with them 33,000 guns and nearly 2 million ammunition cartridges. It took the Red Army 40 days to get through the blockhouses surrounding Jiangxi but no sooner had they done this than they were attacked by the Kuomintang. In the Battle of Xiang, the Red Army lost 45,000 men – over 50% of their fighting force.
Clearly, poor strategy played its part in this. Braun planned for the Red Army to march in a straight line. The Kuomintang were able to predict where the Red Army would be at any given point. After this battle, Braun, the Russian advisor was blamed for these failings but the damage had been done. In January 1935, control of the Red Army was handed over to Mao and Braun was suspended.
Mao adopted new tactics. He wanted the Red Army to move in a completely unpredictable way. As the Red Army moved away from Kuomintang, it used twisting movement patterns that made predicting its direction very difficult. Mao also split up the Red Army into smaller units. In theory this made them more open to attack – in practice, they were more difficult to find in the open spaces on China.
Mao also had a new target – the provinces in the north of China. The journey was physically demanding as it crossed a very difficult environment. The Red Army had to cross the Snowy Mountains, some of the highest mountains in the world, and the Chinese Grassland which was an area of deep marshes which claimed hundreds of lives. The Red Army did not only have to contend with the Kuomintang. The land in northern China was very much controlled by warlords. Even the Kuomintang under Chiang had failed to break their power. They warlords would not welcome the arrival of the Red Army into an area they effectively ruled.
By October 1935, what was left of the original 87,000 Red Army soldiers reached their goal of Yanan. Less than 10,000 men had survived the march. These survivors had marched over 9000 kilometers. The march had taken 368 days. The Long March is considered one of the great physical feats of the Twentieth Century. However, when those who survived the march reached Yunan, they combined with the communist troops there to form a fighting strength of 80,000 which still made it a formidable fighting force against the Kuomintang.
This event would have long reaching affects on China for the next 40 years or so as the survivors of this march would become very active in China's policies both during the war and after.
The Long March saved Mao Zedong and the Communist Party from the attacks by Chiang Kei-shek. The Long March came about when the Chinese Communists had to flee a concerted Kuomintang attack that had been ordered by Chiang Kia-shek.
In the autumn of 1933, the Kuomintang leader Chiang Kia-shek launched a huge attack against the Communists who were then based in south-east China. 500,000 Kuomintang troops surrounded Jiangxi in an attempt to isolate the Communists. The Kuomintang had a policy of making a slow advance building trenches and blockhouses as they went to give the Kuomintang troops there places of protection. The idea was to starve them out rather then engage in combat with them.
It was then that the Communists changed tactics. Against the advice of Mao, the Communists used full-scale attacks against the Kuomintang. The Communist Chinese Party was being advised by a Russian military leader who promoted the idea of a full front attack which Mao Zedong opposed. He convinced the Communist hierarchy that Mao was wrong. He also branded Mao as being politically wrong. Mao was expelled from the Chinese Communist Party’s Central Committee.
The strategy proved to be very costly for the Communists. They lost men and equipment and due to the siege was unable to get supplies through.
Mao tried to win back support by pushing for a breakout by the Red Army followed up by an attack on the Kuomintang in their rear. This was rejected in favor of the Russian advisors idea for a full-scale retreat to where the Chinese Communist’s Party Second Army was based. The retreat – which was to be called the Long March – started in October 1934.
The Red Army started to Long March carrying whatever it could. 87,000 soldiers started the retreat carrying such items as typewriters, furniture, printing presses etc. They also took with them 33,000 guns and nearly 2 million ammunition cartridges. It took the Red Army 40 days to get through the blockhouses surrounding Jiangxi but no sooner had they done this than they were attacked by the Kuomintang. In the Battle of Xiang, the Red Army lost 45,000 men – over 50% of their fighting force.
Clearly, poor strategy played its part in this. Braun planned for the Red Army to march in a straight line. The Kuomintang were able to predict where the Red Army would be at any given point. After this battle, Braun, the Russian advisor was blamed for these failings but the damage had been done. In January 1935, control of the Red Army was handed over to Mao and Braun was suspended.
Mao adopted new tactics. He wanted the Red Army to move in a completely unpredictable way. As the Red Army moved away from Kuomintang, it used twisting movement patterns that made predicting its direction very difficult. Mao also split up the Red Army into smaller units. In theory this made them more open to attack – in practice, they were more difficult to find in the open spaces on China.
Mao also had a new target – the provinces in the north of China. The journey was physically demanding as it crossed a very difficult environment. The Red Army had to cross the Snowy Mountains, some of the highest mountains in the world, and the Chinese Grassland which was an area of deep marshes which claimed hundreds of lives. The Red Army did not only have to contend with the Kuomintang. The land in northern China was very much controlled by warlords. Even the Kuomintang under Chiang had failed to break their power. They warlords would not welcome the arrival of the Red Army into an area they effectively ruled.
By October 1935, what was left of the original 87,000 Red Army soldiers reached their goal of Yanan. Less than 10,000 men had survived the march. These survivors had marched over 9000 kilometers. The march had taken 368 days. The Long March is considered one of the great physical feats of the Twentieth Century. However, when those who survived the march reached Yunan, they combined with the communist troops there to form a fighting strength of 80,000 which still made it a formidable fighting force against the Kuomintang.
This event would have long reaching affects on China for the next 40 years or so as the survivors of this march would become very active in China's policies both during the war and after.
1937 Nanking Massacre
On November 11, 1937, after securing control of Shanghai, the Japanese army advanced towards Nanking from different directions. In early December, the Japanese troops were already in the outskirts of Nanking.
On December 9, the Japanese troops launched a massive attack upon the city. On the 12th, the defending Chinese troops decided to retreat to the other side of the Yangtze River (Yangzi Jiang). On December 13, the Japanese Army gained control of Nanking.
In the following six weeks, the occupying forces engaged in looting and mass execution which came to be known as the Nanking Massacre. Most experts agree that at least 300,000 Chinese died, and 20,000 women were raped. Some estimate the numbers to be much higher - 340,000 and 80,000 respectively.
Summary
The primary reason for Japan’s aggression into mainland China was the need to have a steady supply of resources which Japan lacked and China held in abundance. The Japanese Empire viewed this element essential to their survival and chose China for three reasons. First China had the required raw materials Japan needed to sustain their desire to build a strong empire in the Pacific region, second China was viewed as weak because of their internal struggle and the final reason was the proximity of China to Japan would make it easier for Japan to keep open a supply route to both reinforce the troops in China and to remove or utilize the raw materials obtained.
From 1931 until officially entering World War II in 1937 and declaring war on Japan, the Japanese would wage a non-declared war in eventually controlling much of the northern provinces. This would start with the invasion of Manchuria and end with the massacre and occupation of Nanking in 1937 when China and Japan would begin open warfare against one another and diplomacy would no longer be suitable to resolve the situation.
The Chinese country was in a difficult position because they faced aggression from both external elements (Japanese Army) and internal elements (the civil war waging between the Kuoatang under Chiang Kei-shek and the Communist Chinese Party under Mao Zedong. This would be demonstrated iby the Long March conducted by Mao Zedong as he led his Communist Chinese Party army on a strategic retreat through the northern mountains of China from Chiang Kia-shek's Nationalist Army. This internal civil war continued on both during and after World War II.
On November 11, 1937, after securing control of Shanghai, the Japanese army advanced towards Nanking from different directions. In early December, the Japanese troops were already in the outskirts of Nanking.
On December 9, the Japanese troops launched a massive attack upon the city. On the 12th, the defending Chinese troops decided to retreat to the other side of the Yangtze River (Yangzi Jiang). On December 13, the Japanese Army gained control of Nanking.
In the following six weeks, the occupying forces engaged in looting and mass execution which came to be known as the Nanking Massacre. Most experts agree that at least 300,000 Chinese died, and 20,000 women were raped. Some estimate the numbers to be much higher - 340,000 and 80,000 respectively.
Summary
The primary reason for Japan’s aggression into mainland China was the need to have a steady supply of resources which Japan lacked and China held in abundance. The Japanese Empire viewed this element essential to their survival and chose China for three reasons. First China had the required raw materials Japan needed to sustain their desire to build a strong empire in the Pacific region, second China was viewed as weak because of their internal struggle and the final reason was the proximity of China to Japan would make it easier for Japan to keep open a supply route to both reinforce the troops in China and to remove or utilize the raw materials obtained.
From 1931 until officially entering World War II in 1937 and declaring war on Japan, the Japanese would wage a non-declared war in eventually controlling much of the northern provinces. This would start with the invasion of Manchuria and end with the massacre and occupation of Nanking in 1937 when China and Japan would begin open warfare against one another and diplomacy would no longer be suitable to resolve the situation.
The Chinese country was in a difficult position because they faced aggression from both external elements (Japanese Army) and internal elements (the civil war waging between the Kuoatang under Chiang Kei-shek and the Communist Chinese Party under Mao Zedong. This would be demonstrated iby the Long March conducted by Mao Zedong as he led his Communist Chinese Party army on a strategic retreat through the northern mountains of China from Chiang Kia-shek's Nationalist Army. This internal civil war continued on both during and after World War II.