Summary
The conflicts in Africa and Europe were long and difficult and began with Germany invading Poland Hitler enjoyed a string of early successes by uses new strategies and striking quickly such as the strategy of using tanks and airplanes together in a combined attack called a blitzkrieg.
The first major country to fall to this strategy was France. Hitler moved in through the north after taking first Norway and then the rest of the Low Countries. This placed him on the northern border of France and in May of 1940 he advanced into French territory. Striking quickly he drove through the northern part of France to the English Channel cutting off the British Expeditionary Force forcing them to retreat back to the port city of Dunkirk. Here over 380,000 men evacuated from the coast of France to England in only a few short days utilizing anything that would float. France eventually signed an Armistice with Germany and fell very easy at the start of the war. France after the signing of the Armistice was basically divided into two groups. The Vichy French which joined the Axis side and fought for Hitler and those Free French who joined either the French Underground or joined with General de Gaul and fought for the Allies. The most combat that French forces saw during World War II would take place in North Africa during the execution of Operation Torch where the French Vichy who remained loyal to the Axis would give the Allied landing forces a difficult time initially at Morocco and Algiers.
Confident after the quick fall of France Hitler soon devised a plan referred to as Operation Sea Lion to invade Great Britain. Hitler realized that prior to a ground invasion of Great Britain he must first neutralize the Royal Air Force which had already proven extremely effective. Charging the Luftwaffe with destroying British airfields and crippling the Royal Air Force Hitler began a series of air raids that progressed in stages. In the beginning his forces focused on destroying the air fields and the Royal Air Force. This changed in mid-August when in one day he lost 71 airplanes he switched his tactic to bombing factories to paralyze Great Britain’s capability to manufacture ammunition and supplies needed for the war effort. Finally in early September he authorized the bombing of civilian targets in hopes of crushing the morale of the English and forcing them to surrender. The English resisted these attempts with determination and bravery and Hitler was denied a victory in Great Britain.
The Battle of the Atlantic became a war of attrition between the Allied fleet of war ships and cargo vessels and the German U-boats which traveled the Atlantic at will in what became known as wolf-packs sinking any Allied vessel it could find in an attempt to keep supplies and troops reaching a war weary Great Britain. Once the United States entered the war the Allies were able to win this war of attrition by producing more goods and ships then the German submarines could sink. In addition to this the British Royal Navy in May of 1941 dealt a huge blow to the German navy by finding and sinking the Bismarck which was considered to be the biggest threat to Allied shipping in the Atlantic. Hitler would continue to use submarine warfare in sinking ships but this defeat of the pride of the German fleet forced him to respect the naval power of the British. The Allies (primarily the British and the United States) initiated a blockade of Germany and began to run their ships in a convoy system to protect against U-boat attacks.
Hitler still feeling the need to expand his territory and conquer more lands turned to the east and the Soviet Union. This move has been seen by many historians as Hitler’s biggest mistake of the war opening up another front to the east but in reality Hitler had to invade the Soviet Union at some time because the Soviet Union had something Germany severally lacked and that was an abundance in resources.
In direct violation of the non-aggression pact he had signed with the Soviet Union in 1939 prior to his occupation of Poland Hitler invades the Soviet Union.
This was referred to as Operation Barbarossa and can be broken down into four basic components. First the initial success that Hitler experiences capturing the Soviet Union oil fields and the port city of Kiev. The second was surrounding and laying siege to the city of Leningrad. The third was the Battle of Moscow and finally the fourth major engagement at the city of Stalingrad. Many considered Hitler’s decision to attack the Soviet Union before securing his western and southern fronts was a huge mistake that would lead to his eventual defeat because he would not be able to maintain a three front war.
The African campaign was primarily fought for control of the Mediterranean Sea which if viewed from a map you will see is a large body of water almost completely surrounded by land. The major entry points to the Mediterranean from outside of Europe are the Straits of Gibraltar where the tips of Africa and Europe narrow and is considered a choke point or control area to limit entry from the Atlantic Ocean and the Suez Canal near Egypt that connects the Mediterranean with the Pacific Ocean and is considered the second choke point or control area. The side that controls these choke points can effectively control the Mediterranean Sea. This was crucial for both sides to gain control of at least one of these strategic points. The Axis (first Italy and later Germany) choose to try to capture the Suez Canal primarily because the Straits of Gibraltar were easily defended by both the British and the American fleets.
The two major fleets in the Mediterranean Sea were the British Royal Fleet and the Italian Fleet. These forces engaged in two major conflicts first the Battle of Taranto were the English surprised the Italian fleet in the port city of Taranto in a aerial night raid doing heavy damage to their fleet and the second was the Battle of Matapan near the island of Crete were the British decimated the rest of the Italian fleet to gain control of the Mediterranean Sea.
Italy enjoyed very limited initial success at the start of the war controlling parts of North Africa but did not have the supplies or troops to successfully gain control of the Suez Canal so Mussolini asked Hitler for support and this would drag Germany into a conflict that eventually would end up draining her of much needed supplies and manpower (due to lost battles).
The battles in the North African deserts were mostly tank battles and the two primary rivals were Field Marshal Montgomery (Monty) and Field Marshal Rommel known as the Desert Fox because of his brilliant strategic mind. Both of these generals would also play a prominent role in battling the Axis in Europe.
The Allies using combined forces strategy for the first time (integrating Army and Navy in a concentrated attack to land troops in both Morocco and Algiers eventually won the war in North Africa in 1943. This experience would prove valuable as later the launched the Invasion of both Italy and Normandy. The Allies then used their stronghold on North Africa to stage and launch an attack on the European Theater by first taking the Italian island of Sicily in July of 1943 and controlling the Straits of Messina.
The invasion of Sicily and political tensions in Italy soon ended the dictatorship of Benito Mussolini. Once Sicily was in Allied control the Italian government lost faith in Benito Mussolini’s capabilities as a leader and on July 25th 1943, the Italian government voted to limit the power of the Mussolini who was first dismissed as prime minister and then imprisoned. King Victor Emmanuel III as the head of the Italian government began to negotiate in secret with the Allied forces to join them in the conflict signing an Armistice with the Allies in September of 1943. This began the liberation of Italy from German control and the long march to Berlin. The long march north was primarily fought by the Germans using the strategy of delaying tactics and lines of enforcement. The Germans would create a defensive line, fortify and hold it as long as possible with minimum troops while the bulk of the German army would fall back creating additional fortified lines. The goal was to delay the Allies as they marched north towards the southern border of Germany for as long as possible attempting to kill as many Allies as possible. The Italian campaign produced many of the toughest battles fought during War World II including the struggle for Salerno and Naples, Monte Casino, the Battle of Anzio Beach , gaining control of Italy’s traditional capital of Rome, then north through the rugged Apennine Mountains. The long march north engaging German troops left Italy littered with the bodies of both sides and the white crosses that mark their many graves are still visible today.
The Invasion of Normandy/D-Day or otherwise known as Operation Overlord landed massive troops on the beach in Normandy, France and the liberation of France begins. Operation Overlord was supported by a second operation Operation Fortitude which was designed to convince the Germans the invasion would take place in Calais. This was an elaborate ruse designed to convince the Germans of a large troop build up across the channel from Calais the shortest distance between Great Britain and France. This deception included the use of inflatable tanks, plywood ships and a “ghost army” under the command of General George Patton who was greatly respected by the Axis.
This invasion also was designed to open a second front to divert Hitler’s attention away from the Soviet Union and provide them relief from the constant combat they had been experiencing since Hitler had initiated Operation Barbarossa. The Allies used both over powering forces, combined naval, air and land attacks as well as deception to achieve their goals in France. The Allies began the slow march to Berlin.
The Invasion of Normandy was followed by smaller operations as the south of France was liberated and the Allied forces marched towards the German border.
The last German offensive was launched on December 16th, 1944 and ended on January 25th 1945. Hitler feeling the pressure of the Allied forces approaching from France and the Low Countries and the Soviets advancing from the east felt a desperate need to avoid being surrounding on all sides. Hitler devised a plan to break through the Allied line approaching from France and capture the port city of Antwerp. This would effectively cut the Allied forces in half, British on one side and Americans on the other side. This engagement is referred to as the Battle of the Bulge and is the last major engagement that the British and Americans participate in leaving the capturing of Berlin to Soviet Troops.
The final battle of the European Campaign referred to as the Battle of Berlin occurs from April 16th – May 2nd 1945. This action is primarily a Soviet Union engagement of the remaining German troops and the fall of the city of Berlin.
The Soviet Union advancing from the east through Poland into Germany managed to encircle Berlin through a series of maneuvers and then began the street to street warfare of taking the city itself. They first were able to capture Gestapo Headquarters and later that day (April 29th) capture the Reichstag (German High Command).
Hitler now realizing that he has no way out and defeat is imminent first marries his long time consort Eva Braun and then the two of them commit suicide on April 30th. With the death of Hitler the European conflict is over but it will not be official until the remaining German officers under the command of General Weidling surrender to the Soviet Union which would be the official end of the European conflict.
The conflicts in both Africa and Europe left hundred of thousands dead and today the white crosses where these men are buried litter the countryside of Europe near the battlefields where they fell. In times of peace and prosperity it is too easy to forget the sacrifices of past generations. I would like to close this section with a tribute to the many men who fought, bleed and died for our freedoms on the beaches of Normandy, the rugged terrain of Italy, the blood soaked fields of France, the deserts of Africa and the many other battlefields and engagements that occurred in this region of the world during World War II. This tribute was written by Gary McKinney in 2009.
The conflicts in Africa and Europe were long and difficult and began with Germany invading Poland Hitler enjoyed a string of early successes by uses new strategies and striking quickly such as the strategy of using tanks and airplanes together in a combined attack called a blitzkrieg.
The first major country to fall to this strategy was France. Hitler moved in through the north after taking first Norway and then the rest of the Low Countries. This placed him on the northern border of France and in May of 1940 he advanced into French territory. Striking quickly he drove through the northern part of France to the English Channel cutting off the British Expeditionary Force forcing them to retreat back to the port city of Dunkirk. Here over 380,000 men evacuated from the coast of France to England in only a few short days utilizing anything that would float. France eventually signed an Armistice with Germany and fell very easy at the start of the war. France after the signing of the Armistice was basically divided into two groups. The Vichy French which joined the Axis side and fought for Hitler and those Free French who joined either the French Underground or joined with General de Gaul and fought for the Allies. The most combat that French forces saw during World War II would take place in North Africa during the execution of Operation Torch where the French Vichy who remained loyal to the Axis would give the Allied landing forces a difficult time initially at Morocco and Algiers.
Confident after the quick fall of France Hitler soon devised a plan referred to as Operation Sea Lion to invade Great Britain. Hitler realized that prior to a ground invasion of Great Britain he must first neutralize the Royal Air Force which had already proven extremely effective. Charging the Luftwaffe with destroying British airfields and crippling the Royal Air Force Hitler began a series of air raids that progressed in stages. In the beginning his forces focused on destroying the air fields and the Royal Air Force. This changed in mid-August when in one day he lost 71 airplanes he switched his tactic to bombing factories to paralyze Great Britain’s capability to manufacture ammunition and supplies needed for the war effort. Finally in early September he authorized the bombing of civilian targets in hopes of crushing the morale of the English and forcing them to surrender. The English resisted these attempts with determination and bravery and Hitler was denied a victory in Great Britain.
The Battle of the Atlantic became a war of attrition between the Allied fleet of war ships and cargo vessels and the German U-boats which traveled the Atlantic at will in what became known as wolf-packs sinking any Allied vessel it could find in an attempt to keep supplies and troops reaching a war weary Great Britain. Once the United States entered the war the Allies were able to win this war of attrition by producing more goods and ships then the German submarines could sink. In addition to this the British Royal Navy in May of 1941 dealt a huge blow to the German navy by finding and sinking the Bismarck which was considered to be the biggest threat to Allied shipping in the Atlantic. Hitler would continue to use submarine warfare in sinking ships but this defeat of the pride of the German fleet forced him to respect the naval power of the British. The Allies (primarily the British and the United States) initiated a blockade of Germany and began to run their ships in a convoy system to protect against U-boat attacks.
Hitler still feeling the need to expand his territory and conquer more lands turned to the east and the Soviet Union. This move has been seen by many historians as Hitler’s biggest mistake of the war opening up another front to the east but in reality Hitler had to invade the Soviet Union at some time because the Soviet Union had something Germany severally lacked and that was an abundance in resources.
In direct violation of the non-aggression pact he had signed with the Soviet Union in 1939 prior to his occupation of Poland Hitler invades the Soviet Union.
This was referred to as Operation Barbarossa and can be broken down into four basic components. First the initial success that Hitler experiences capturing the Soviet Union oil fields and the port city of Kiev. The second was surrounding and laying siege to the city of Leningrad. The third was the Battle of Moscow and finally the fourth major engagement at the city of Stalingrad. Many considered Hitler’s decision to attack the Soviet Union before securing his western and southern fronts was a huge mistake that would lead to his eventual defeat because he would not be able to maintain a three front war.
The African campaign was primarily fought for control of the Mediterranean Sea which if viewed from a map you will see is a large body of water almost completely surrounded by land. The major entry points to the Mediterranean from outside of Europe are the Straits of Gibraltar where the tips of Africa and Europe narrow and is considered a choke point or control area to limit entry from the Atlantic Ocean and the Suez Canal near Egypt that connects the Mediterranean with the Pacific Ocean and is considered the second choke point or control area. The side that controls these choke points can effectively control the Mediterranean Sea. This was crucial for both sides to gain control of at least one of these strategic points. The Axis (first Italy and later Germany) choose to try to capture the Suez Canal primarily because the Straits of Gibraltar were easily defended by both the British and the American fleets.
The two major fleets in the Mediterranean Sea were the British Royal Fleet and the Italian Fleet. These forces engaged in two major conflicts first the Battle of Taranto were the English surprised the Italian fleet in the port city of Taranto in a aerial night raid doing heavy damage to their fleet and the second was the Battle of Matapan near the island of Crete were the British decimated the rest of the Italian fleet to gain control of the Mediterranean Sea.
Italy enjoyed very limited initial success at the start of the war controlling parts of North Africa but did not have the supplies or troops to successfully gain control of the Suez Canal so Mussolini asked Hitler for support and this would drag Germany into a conflict that eventually would end up draining her of much needed supplies and manpower (due to lost battles).
The battles in the North African deserts were mostly tank battles and the two primary rivals were Field Marshal Montgomery (Monty) and Field Marshal Rommel known as the Desert Fox because of his brilliant strategic mind. Both of these generals would also play a prominent role in battling the Axis in Europe.
The Allies using combined forces strategy for the first time (integrating Army and Navy in a concentrated attack to land troops in both Morocco and Algiers eventually won the war in North Africa in 1943. This experience would prove valuable as later the launched the Invasion of both Italy and Normandy. The Allies then used their stronghold on North Africa to stage and launch an attack on the European Theater by first taking the Italian island of Sicily in July of 1943 and controlling the Straits of Messina.
The invasion of Sicily and political tensions in Italy soon ended the dictatorship of Benito Mussolini. Once Sicily was in Allied control the Italian government lost faith in Benito Mussolini’s capabilities as a leader and on July 25th 1943, the Italian government voted to limit the power of the Mussolini who was first dismissed as prime minister and then imprisoned. King Victor Emmanuel III as the head of the Italian government began to negotiate in secret with the Allied forces to join them in the conflict signing an Armistice with the Allies in September of 1943. This began the liberation of Italy from German control and the long march to Berlin. The long march north was primarily fought by the Germans using the strategy of delaying tactics and lines of enforcement. The Germans would create a defensive line, fortify and hold it as long as possible with minimum troops while the bulk of the German army would fall back creating additional fortified lines. The goal was to delay the Allies as they marched north towards the southern border of Germany for as long as possible attempting to kill as many Allies as possible. The Italian campaign produced many of the toughest battles fought during War World II including the struggle for Salerno and Naples, Monte Casino, the Battle of Anzio Beach , gaining control of Italy’s traditional capital of Rome, then north through the rugged Apennine Mountains. The long march north engaging German troops left Italy littered with the bodies of both sides and the white crosses that mark their many graves are still visible today.
The Invasion of Normandy/D-Day or otherwise known as Operation Overlord landed massive troops on the beach in Normandy, France and the liberation of France begins. Operation Overlord was supported by a second operation Operation Fortitude which was designed to convince the Germans the invasion would take place in Calais. This was an elaborate ruse designed to convince the Germans of a large troop build up across the channel from Calais the shortest distance between Great Britain and France. This deception included the use of inflatable tanks, plywood ships and a “ghost army” under the command of General George Patton who was greatly respected by the Axis.
This invasion also was designed to open a second front to divert Hitler’s attention away from the Soviet Union and provide them relief from the constant combat they had been experiencing since Hitler had initiated Operation Barbarossa. The Allies used both over powering forces, combined naval, air and land attacks as well as deception to achieve their goals in France. The Allies began the slow march to Berlin.
The Invasion of Normandy was followed by smaller operations as the south of France was liberated and the Allied forces marched towards the German border.
The last German offensive was launched on December 16th, 1944 and ended on January 25th 1945. Hitler feeling the pressure of the Allied forces approaching from France and the Low Countries and the Soviets advancing from the east felt a desperate need to avoid being surrounding on all sides. Hitler devised a plan to break through the Allied line approaching from France and capture the port city of Antwerp. This would effectively cut the Allied forces in half, British on one side and Americans on the other side. This engagement is referred to as the Battle of the Bulge and is the last major engagement that the British and Americans participate in leaving the capturing of Berlin to Soviet Troops.
The final battle of the European Campaign referred to as the Battle of Berlin occurs from April 16th – May 2nd 1945. This action is primarily a Soviet Union engagement of the remaining German troops and the fall of the city of Berlin.
The Soviet Union advancing from the east through Poland into Germany managed to encircle Berlin through a series of maneuvers and then began the street to street warfare of taking the city itself. They first were able to capture Gestapo Headquarters and later that day (April 29th) capture the Reichstag (German High Command).
Hitler now realizing that he has no way out and defeat is imminent first marries his long time consort Eva Braun and then the two of them commit suicide on April 30th. With the death of Hitler the European conflict is over but it will not be official until the remaining German officers under the command of General Weidling surrender to the Soviet Union which would be the official end of the European conflict.
The conflicts in both Africa and Europe left hundred of thousands dead and today the white crosses where these men are buried litter the countryside of Europe near the battlefields where they fell. In times of peace and prosperity it is too easy to forget the sacrifices of past generations. I would like to close this section with a tribute to the many men who fought, bleed and died for our freedoms on the beaches of Normandy, the rugged terrain of Italy, the blood soaked fields of France, the deserts of Africa and the many other battlefields and engagements that occurred in this region of the world during World War II. This tribute was written by Gary McKinney in 2009.