Great Britain between the years of 1919 – 1939 like many countries in Europe experienced rebellion, economic hardship and social unrest. Great Britain in addition to local concerns also held many global interests because of its vast empire (which included India, Australia, Canada and many other “dominions” under its control. Since Great Britain influenced local and world politics to such a great degree the events between 1919 and 1939 will be divided into three areas of interest: military events, internal events and international events. The intent is not to go into a great deal of detail on each event but to give you a broad overview of how far reaching the British Empire was at this time in history.
Military Events
Jan 1930
London Conference on Naval Disarmament Starts
A powerful disarmament movement reached the peak of its activities in the 1930s. Ramsay Macdonald, a committed internationalist and pacifist, was an enthusiastic believer that the League of Nations could make the world disarm through dialogue. But in 1931, Japan seized Manchuria and pulled out of the League. The rise of militarist regimes across Europe meant that by 1933 the idea of 'collective security' was looking increasingly unworkable and the League of Nations was failing as a world peace organization.
July 1934
New air defense program adds 41 squadrons to the Royal Air Force (RAF)
In 1933, German leader Adolph Hitler had withdrawn from the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations in order to begin re-arming his country. Despite a 1935 League of Nations “peace ballot” that showed 90% of the British public favored multilateral disarmament, the British government reluctantly recognizes the need to re-arm itself preparing for possible hostilities with Germany and Hitler. There remains however a very strong determination to avoid war at all costs.
Military Events
Jan 1930
London Conference on Naval Disarmament Starts
A powerful disarmament movement reached the peak of its activities in the 1930s. Ramsay Macdonald, a committed internationalist and pacifist, was an enthusiastic believer that the League of Nations could make the world disarm through dialogue. But in 1931, Japan seized Manchuria and pulled out of the League. The rise of militarist regimes across Europe meant that by 1933 the idea of 'collective security' was looking increasingly unworkable and the League of Nations was failing as a world peace organization.
July 1934
New air defense program adds 41 squadrons to the Royal Air Force (RAF)
In 1933, German leader Adolph Hitler had withdrawn from the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations in order to begin re-arming his country. Despite a 1935 League of Nations “peace ballot” that showed 90% of the British public favored multilateral disarmament, the British government reluctantly recognizes the need to re-arm itself preparing for possible hostilities with Germany and Hitler. There remains however a very strong determination to avoid war at all costs.
The British Spitfire was a major element against German air raids
April 1935
Britain, France and Italy meet to discuss German rearmament (The Stresa Conference)
The Stresa Conference was intended to form a united front against Adolf Hitler's Germany, but Italian leader Benito Mussolini had more in common with Hitler than with the western democracies. On 2 October, he invaded Ethiopia. Despite public sanctions, in a secret agreement dubbed the Hoare-Laval Pact, Britain and France devised a partition plan which gave Italy two-thirds of Ethiopia.
Internal Events
Jul 1921
Unemployment reaches post-war high of 2.5 million
Prime Minister David Lloyd George had promised “a land fit for heroes” following World War One, but Britain only experienced a short post-war boom, and many demobilized soldiers found it increasingly difficult to get work. Deprivation was widespread and industrial relations deteriorated. War debts to the United States and non-payment of European allies’ war debts meant the government could not pay for many planned reforms.
Dec 1921 - 1922 Irish Civil War
Great Britain during the inter-war years had unrest both in her colonies and closer to home. In December 1921 a peace treaty was signed between Great Britain and Ireland (who for many years had resented the rule of the British Empire) and was referred to as the Ulster Problem. In December 1921 an attempt to resolve this issue peacefully was initiated by the Anglo-Irish Peach Treaty of 1921. This treaty turned the southern part of Ireland into a dominion rather than a republic and was called the “Irish Free State”, however the British remained as head of state. The fact that the treaty still bound Ireland to Britain caused a deep conflict and would lead to the outbreak of violence known as the Irish Civil War.
The civil war revolved around two different viewpoints or visions of Ireland as a free and independent country. The pro-treaty faction accepted the assignment of Ireland as a dominion that kept the British royalty as head of state. The opposing side rejected the treaty and wished to be made a republic (independent country) immediately. The conflict was eventually resolved in favor of the pro-treaty Free State government but caused a lasting bitterness between both parties.
With the British government distracted by the constitutional crises of Edward VIII’s abdication, the Irish Free State Leader seized the opportunity to draw up a new constitution for Ireland that omitted any references to its place within the British Empire. In addition to making Ireland a de facto republic, the constitution laid claim to the whole of Ireland, including Ulster.
April 1925 Chancellor Winston Churchill returns Britain to the 'Gold Standard'
In an attempt to promote a strong economy one the first actions taken by Chancellor Winston Churchill was to return Britain to its pre-1914 monetary system, whereby sterling was fixed at a price reflecting the country's gold reserves. The move results in massive deflation and overvaluing of the pound. This made British manufacturing industries uncompetitive, which in turn exacerbated the massive economic problems Britain was to face in the 1930s.
Britain, France and Italy meet to discuss German rearmament (The Stresa Conference)
The Stresa Conference was intended to form a united front against Adolf Hitler's Germany, but Italian leader Benito Mussolini had more in common with Hitler than with the western democracies. On 2 October, he invaded Ethiopia. Despite public sanctions, in a secret agreement dubbed the Hoare-Laval Pact, Britain and France devised a partition plan which gave Italy two-thirds of Ethiopia.
Internal Events
Jul 1921
Unemployment reaches post-war high of 2.5 million
Prime Minister David Lloyd George had promised “a land fit for heroes” following World War One, but Britain only experienced a short post-war boom, and many demobilized soldiers found it increasingly difficult to get work. Deprivation was widespread and industrial relations deteriorated. War debts to the United States and non-payment of European allies’ war debts meant the government could not pay for many planned reforms.
Dec 1921 - 1922 Irish Civil War
Great Britain during the inter-war years had unrest both in her colonies and closer to home. In December 1921 a peace treaty was signed between Great Britain and Ireland (who for many years had resented the rule of the British Empire) and was referred to as the Ulster Problem. In December 1921 an attempt to resolve this issue peacefully was initiated by the Anglo-Irish Peach Treaty of 1921. This treaty turned the southern part of Ireland into a dominion rather than a republic and was called the “Irish Free State”, however the British remained as head of state. The fact that the treaty still bound Ireland to Britain caused a deep conflict and would lead to the outbreak of violence known as the Irish Civil War.
The civil war revolved around two different viewpoints or visions of Ireland as a free and independent country. The pro-treaty faction accepted the assignment of Ireland as a dominion that kept the British royalty as head of state. The opposing side rejected the treaty and wished to be made a republic (independent country) immediately. The conflict was eventually resolved in favor of the pro-treaty Free State government but caused a lasting bitterness between both parties.
With the British government distracted by the constitutional crises of Edward VIII’s abdication, the Irish Free State Leader seized the opportunity to draw up a new constitution for Ireland that omitted any references to its place within the British Empire. In addition to making Ireland a de facto republic, the constitution laid claim to the whole of Ireland, including Ulster.
April 1925 Chancellor Winston Churchill returns Britain to the 'Gold Standard'
In an attempt to promote a strong economy one the first actions taken by Chancellor Winston Churchill was to return Britain to its pre-1914 monetary system, whereby sterling was fixed at a price reflecting the country's gold reserves. The move results in massive deflation and overvaluing of the pound. This made British manufacturing industries uncompetitive, which in turn exacerbated the massive economic problems Britain was to face in the 1930s.
Oct 1929
Wall Street Crash sparks the Great Depression
The crash of the American Wall Street financial markets in 1929 crippled the economies of the US and Europe, resulting in the Great Depression. In Britain, unemployment had peaked just below three million by 1932. It was only with rearmament in the period immediately before the outbreak of World War Two that the worst of the Depression could be said to be over.
Oct 1932
Oswald Mosley founds the British Union of Fascists
Oswald Mosley, formerly a Conservative and then Labor member of parliament, modeled his party along Italian fascist lines. The party never became part of the political mainstream and was banned in 1940. Moseley was interned during the war and twice attempted unsuccessfully to return to parliament in post-war Britain.
January 1936 – May 1937
George V dies succeeded by Edward VIII. Edward VIII abdicates throne succeeded by brother George VI.
As Prince of Wales, Edward had visited many parts of the country hit by the prolonged economic depression. These visits, his apparently genuine concern for the underprivileged and his official overseas tours on behalf of his father made him popular in Britain and abroad. On one of his trips to the United States he met and fell in loved with a married American woman (Wallis Simpson) and insisted on marrying her once her divorce was final in 1936. The British people found this act unacceptable because she was a divorce and forced Edward VIII to choose between his marriage or the British throne.
Edward VIII in 1937 having to choose between love and being King chose love and abdicated the throne and his younger brother, the Duke of York, who was crowned George VI. He and his wife Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother), became inspirational figures for Britain during World War Two. The monarch visited his armies on several battle fronts and founded the George Cross for 'acts of the greatest heroism or of the most conspicuous courage in circumstances of extreme danger'
Wall Street Crash sparks the Great Depression
The crash of the American Wall Street financial markets in 1929 crippled the economies of the US and Europe, resulting in the Great Depression. In Britain, unemployment had peaked just below three million by 1932. It was only with rearmament in the period immediately before the outbreak of World War Two that the worst of the Depression could be said to be over.
Oct 1932
Oswald Mosley founds the British Union of Fascists
Oswald Mosley, formerly a Conservative and then Labor member of parliament, modeled his party along Italian fascist lines. The party never became part of the political mainstream and was banned in 1940. Moseley was interned during the war and twice attempted unsuccessfully to return to parliament in post-war Britain.
January 1936 – May 1937
George V dies succeeded by Edward VIII. Edward VIII abdicates throne succeeded by brother George VI.
As Prince of Wales, Edward had visited many parts of the country hit by the prolonged economic depression. These visits, his apparently genuine concern for the underprivileged and his official overseas tours on behalf of his father made him popular in Britain and abroad. On one of his trips to the United States he met and fell in loved with a married American woman (Wallis Simpson) and insisted on marrying her once her divorce was final in 1936. The British people found this act unacceptable because she was a divorce and forced Edward VIII to choose between his marriage or the British throne.
Edward VIII in 1937 having to choose between love and being King chose love and abdicated the throne and his younger brother, the Duke of York, who was crowned George VI. He and his wife Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother), became inspirational figures for Britain during World War Two. The monarch visited his armies on several battle fronts and founded the George Cross for 'acts of the greatest heroism or of the most conspicuous courage in circumstances of extreme danger'
International Events
April 1919
British soldiers kill hundreds of unarmed Indian civilians at Amritsar, India
A large crowd attending a religious festival in defiance of British law was fired on without warning by troops under the command of Brigadier General Reginald Dyer. More than 300 people were killed. The “Amritsar Massacre” crystallized growing Indian discontent with British rule, which was only heightened when Dyer faced no other punishment than an official censure. Led by Mohandas Gandhi, the Indian Congress Party (ICP) now became a nationwide movement.
In December of 1919 the British government issues the Government of India Act which further alienates and angers the citizens of India. The act created a bicameral parliament (a form of government based on two legislative chambers that ruled the country together), with power shared between British and Indian politicians, however the most important ministries were held by the British.
April 1919
British soldiers kill hundreds of unarmed Indian civilians at Amritsar, India
A large crowd attending a religious festival in defiance of British law was fired on without warning by troops under the command of Brigadier General Reginald Dyer. More than 300 people were killed. The “Amritsar Massacre” crystallized growing Indian discontent with British rule, which was only heightened when Dyer faced no other punishment than an official censure. Led by Mohandas Gandhi, the Indian Congress Party (ICP) now became a nationwide movement.
In December of 1919 the British government issues the Government of India Act which further alienates and angers the citizens of India. The act created a bicameral parliament (a form of government based on two legislative chambers that ruled the country together), with power shared between British and Indian politicians, however the most important ministries were held by the British.
Mohandas Gandhi organizing a peaceful protest in India
In 1927 a parliamentary commission was sent to India to investigate grievances and make recommendations on the future of the country. The commission contained no Indian members or representation and determined that representative government in the provinces and that power should remain with the British Viceroy (governor). The Indian National Congress, which wanted dominion status, granted immediately, organized huge demonstrations to register their disagreement.
More reforms were to be discussed during a ten year peaceful protest that consisted of Indians conducting peaceful strikes and boycotts of British goods. One such boycott occurred when Gandhi defied the British government in regards to a monopoly on salt-making, he lead a march to the sea to make his own salt and was followed by 5 million Indians. This would lead to Gandhi’s and 60,000 others being imprisoned. Gandhi was imprisoned from 1930 to 1931 for his peaceful protests.
Between 1930- 1933 the British held three conferences which are referred to as Round Table conferences to discuss however since there was a severe lack of representation by Indian members (the last conference had no Indian representation in attendance) these conferences failed to achieve their goal and when they broke down led to further mass non-cooperation in India. In 1935 a new Government of India Act was passed granting Indians an elected assembly and extending the powers of the assemblies.
Throughout this whole process Gandhi never preached violence and was considered to be a very great and wise leader steering his country eventually to freedom through the use of non violent measures.
I have included a little treat that I think you might enjoy a short film that explains just a few of Gandhi’s believes and part of his philosophy.
In 1927 a parliamentary commission was sent to India to investigate grievances and make recommendations on the future of the country. The commission contained no Indian members or representation and determined that representative government in the provinces and that power should remain with the British Viceroy (governor). The Indian National Congress, which wanted dominion status, granted immediately, organized huge demonstrations to register their disagreement.
More reforms were to be discussed during a ten year peaceful protest that consisted of Indians conducting peaceful strikes and boycotts of British goods. One such boycott occurred when Gandhi defied the British government in regards to a monopoly on salt-making, he lead a march to the sea to make his own salt and was followed by 5 million Indians. This would lead to Gandhi’s and 60,000 others being imprisoned. Gandhi was imprisoned from 1930 to 1931 for his peaceful protests.
Between 1930- 1933 the British held three conferences which are referred to as Round Table conferences to discuss however since there was a severe lack of representation by Indian members (the last conference had no Indian representation in attendance) these conferences failed to achieve their goal and when they broke down led to further mass non-cooperation in India. In 1935 a new Government of India Act was passed granting Indians an elected assembly and extending the powers of the assemblies.
Throughout this whole process Gandhi never preached violence and was considered to be a very great and wise leader steering his country eventually to freedom through the use of non violent measures.
I have included a little treat that I think you might enjoy a short film that explains just a few of Gandhi’s believes and part of his philosophy.
April 1920
Britain is given mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine
The mandate system was conceived by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson at the Conference of Versailles and it dictated that Britain and France were commanded to govern their colonies in the interests of their inhabitants (basically this means that they could not exploit the local population of the territories and countries they governed and must govern them fairly and justly), until these territories were ready to be admitted to the League of Nations. The British took over two areas that had previously formed part of the Ottoman Empire.
This responsibility of mandates would have long reaching effects that concern us even today such as the constant conflict between Palestine and Jerusalem. We can find the origin of this conflict dating back to 1917 when the Balfour Declaration gave official British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. Britain appoints Sir Herbert Samuel as governor of this area. Although Jewish by faith he was determined to deal even-handedly with the Palestinian Arabs and the increasing numbers of Jewish immigrants in this area. In May of 1921 he was forced to halt Jewish immigration because of Arab unrest in this region.
In August of 1921 Great Britain resolves the Mesopotamia (the three former Ottoman provinces of Baghdad, Basra and Mosul) mandate. The British had renamed this area Iraq and the country was in a state of revolt. In an effort to quell the unrest in these areas the British made a prominent Iraqi Emir Faisal as king and administer. Faisal had been an important British ally against the Ottoman Empire.
Iraq became independent under King Faisal. Its strategic importance and oil reserves ensured that Britain maintained a military presence there. During World War Two the British occupied Iraq, as the pro-Axis government intended to cut oil supplies and British access between Egypt and India.
In 1923 Britain attempts to deal with the mandate for Palestine. This was to be one of conflict because it also provided for a Jewish national home. In order for this to happen land had to be redistributed, and the League of Nations determined that land come from Palestine because the Jewish people had a historical link to this area. The debate and boundaries of this is still disputed today and is one of the primary reasons for unrest in the Middle East. Although the League of Nations and the British mandate call for this action the Jewish people would not officially be given their own country (taken from part of Palestine) until after World War II was over. In the interim Great Britain appointed the son of one of Britain’s allies in the area Hashemite Emir Abdullah who would rule the area of Palestine on behave of the British Empire.
July of 1937 the Peel Commission recommends partitioning Palestine between its Arab and Jewish inhabitants but is rejected by both sides. A new report is commissioned and recommends that the final number of Jewish immigrants be limited to 75,000 and Palestine should become independent under majority Arab rule. The outbreak of World War II would put this issue on hold until it could be reviewed again after the war.
Oct 1926
Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa are recognized as autonomous
In 1923, a dominion's right to make a treaty with a foreign power had been accepted. The Imperial Conference in London went further towards legally defining a dominion by recognizing that the dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa) were autonomous and equal in status, a decision that was later affirmed by the 1931 Statute of Westminster.
August 1936
Anglo-Egyptian Treaty ends the British protectorate of Egypt
Britain was reluctant to end its occupation of Egypt because the Suez Canal provided a vital sea route to India. The treaty allowed the British to retain control of the Suez Canal for the next 20 years, and for Britain to reoccupy the country in the event of any threat to British interests.
February 1938
First Jewish refugees arrive in Britain
A total of 10,000 Jewish children between the ages of 5 and 17 were sent from Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia to Britain between February 1938 and the outbreak of war in September 1939. Many were given homes by British families, or lived in hostels. Very few would ever see their parents again.
Newly arrived Jewish refugees arrive just before World War II begins
September 1938
Munich Agreement cedes the Sudetenland to Germany
The Munich Conference between Britain's Neville Chamberlain, Germany's Adolf Hitler, Italy's Benito Mussolini and Eduard Daladier of France agreed that the Czechoslovakian territory of the Sudetenland and its three million ethnic Germans should be joined with Germany. Chamberlain returned to Britain claiming he had achieved 'peace in our time'. In fact, it would come to be a clear demonstration that appeasement did not work, as by March 1939 Hitler had seized the rest of Czechoslovakia.
March 1939
Britain guarantees territorial integrity of Poland
This guarantee formally ended the policy of appeasement and the British government reluctantly began to prepare for war. Conscription (mandatory military service or the draft) was introduced for the first time in peacetime on 27 April 1939 with little protest. 23 August of that same year the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact put to rest the hopes of a Russian ally. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain warned Adolf Hitler that Britain would support Poland if it was attacked by Germany. 01 September 1939 German forces invade Poland. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain still hoped to avoid declaring war on Germany but a threatened revolt in the cabinet and strong public feeling that Hitler should be confronted forced him to honor the Anglo-Polish Treaty. Britain declares war on Germany and World War II officially begins.
Munich Agreement cedes the Sudetenland to Germany
The Munich Conference between Britain's Neville Chamberlain, Germany's Adolf Hitler, Italy's Benito Mussolini and Eduard Daladier of France agreed that the Czechoslovakian territory of the Sudetenland and its three million ethnic Germans should be joined with Germany. Chamberlain returned to Britain claiming he had achieved 'peace in our time'. In fact, it would come to be a clear demonstration that appeasement did not work, as by March 1939 Hitler had seized the rest of Czechoslovakia.
March 1939
Britain guarantees territorial integrity of Poland
This guarantee formally ended the policy of appeasement and the British government reluctantly began to prepare for war. Conscription (mandatory military service or the draft) was introduced for the first time in peacetime on 27 April 1939 with little protest. 23 August of that same year the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact put to rest the hopes of a Russian ally. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain warned Adolf Hitler that Britain would support Poland if it was attacked by Germany. 01 September 1939 German forces invade Poland. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain still hoped to avoid declaring war on Germany but a threatened revolt in the cabinet and strong public feeling that Hitler should be confronted forced him to honor the Anglo-Polish Treaty. Britain declares war on Germany and World War II officially begins.